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FOREBSIC SCIENCE

FORENSIC SCIENCEWWW.PCMBTODAY.COM

A

of DNA sequences unique to that species. Identifying

individuals within a species is less precise at this time,

although when DNA sequencing technologies progress

farther, direct comparison of very large DNA segments,

and possibly even whole genomes, will become feasible

and practical and will allow precise individual

identification.

To identify individuals, forensic scientists scan about

10 DNA regions that vary from person to person and

use the data to create a DNA profile of that individual

(sometimes called a DNA fingerprint). There is an

extremely small chance that another person has the same

DNA profile for a particular set of regions.

ny type of organism can be identified by examination

Is DNA effective in identifying persons?

DNA identification can be quite effective if used

intelligently. That means that those portions of the DNA

sequence that vary the most between humans must be

used; also, large enough portions must be used to

overcome the fact that human mating is not absolutely

random.

Consider the scenario of an crime scene investigation...

Assume that type O blood is found at the crime scene.

type O occurs in about 45 % of individuals. If investigators

only type for ABO, then finding that the “suspect” in a

crime is type O really doesn’t tell you very much.

If, in addition to being type O, the suspect is a foreigner,

and golden brown hair is found at the crime scene, then

you now have two bits of evidence to suggest that your

suspect really did it. However, there are a lot of type O

blonds out there.

If you find that the crime scene has footprints from a

pair of shoes (with a distinctive tread design) and the

suspect, in addition to being type O and blond, is also

wearing a particular type of shoes with the same tread

design, then you are much closer to linking the suspect

with the crime scene.

In this way, by accumulating bits of linking evidence in

a chain, where each bit by itself isn’t very strong but

the set of all of them together is very strong, you can

argue that your suspect really is the right person.

With DNA, the same kind of thinking is used; you can

look for matches (based on sequence, or on numbers of

small repeating units of DNA sequence) at a number of

different locations on the person’s genome; one or two

(even three) isn’t enough to be confident that the suspect

is the right one, but 4 (sometimes 5) are used and a match

at all 5 is rare enough that you (or a prosecutor or a

jury) can be very confident (“beyond a reasonable doubt”)

that the right person is accused.

Identity of a criminal is determined by comparing the

accused man's DNA fingerprint with that of the blood

or seminal stain found at the scene of crime. If the DNA

fingerprints are identical, there is an absolute

identification.

Currently, the most important tool used to make a paternity

determination is a blood test called a human leucocyte

antigen (HLA) test. It is based on the principle that the

genetic variation among individuals in partially reflected

in the kinds of proteins, called antigens, that are present

on their leucocytes. Because a child inherits half his

genetic information from his mother and half from his

father, his proteins should therefore be representative

of both parents. If, for example, the HLA test show that

none of an accused man's proteins are present on a child's

blood cells, then it can be said with nearly 100 percent

certainty that he is not the father of the child. If the

accused man's proteins are on the child's cells, than it

is highly likely that he is the father. The relationship,

however is not certain, because it is always possible that

another man with the same proteins fathered the child.

That is , the test falls short because the proteins used in

the HLA analysis are not unique to any individual. There

can be as much as 5 to 10 percent chance that a man

who is deemed the father is actually not. By contrast,

the DNA fingerprints are unique (except for indentical

twins). The DNA fingerprints are inherited as simple

Mendelian characters). Paternity is determined by

comparing the accused man's DNA fingerprints with that

of the child.

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Some Examples of DNA Uses for Forensic

Identification

l

evidence left at crime scenes

identify potential suspects whose DNA may match

l

exonerate persons wrongly accused of crimes

l

identify crime and catastrophe victims

l

establish paternity and other family relationships

l

to wildlife officials (could be used for prosecuting

poachers)

identify endangered and protected species as an aid

l

air, water, soil, and food

detect bacteria and other organisms that may pollute

l

programs

match organ donors with recipients in transplant

l

determine pedigree for seed or livestock breeds

l

authenticate consumables such as caviar and wine

Major concern for the application of DNA finger

printing

There are certain concerns with the application of DNA

fingerprinting on medicolegal evidence samples.These

are-

1. Gene frequencies for the major population groups

must be established to provide a base for the

interpretation of findings.

2. Standard typing reagents should be available to the

forensic science community to allow independent

testing in different laboratories.

3. Methodological guidlines need to be defined to insure

reliability of test result.

4. Bloodstains would have to contain at least 50

blood to be amenable to analysis.

ml of

How is DNA typing done?

Only one-tenth of a single percent of DNA (about 3

million bases) differs from one person to the next.

Scientists can use these variable regions to generate a

DNA profile of an individual, using samples from blood,

bone, hair, and other body tissues and products.

In criminal cases, this generally involves obtaining

samples from crime-scene evidence and a suspect,

extracting the DNA, and analyzing it for the presence

of a set of specific DNA regions (markers).

Scientists find the markers in a DNA sample by designing

small pieces of DNA (probes) that will each seek out

and bind to a complementary DNA sequence in the

sample. A series of probes bound to a DNA sample creates

a distinctive pattern for an individual. Forensic scientists

compare these DNA profiles to determine whether the

suspect’s sample matches the evidence sample. A marker

by itself usually is not unique to an individual; if, however,

two DNA samples are alike at four or five regions, odds

are great that the samples are from the same person.

If the sample profiles don’t match, the person did not

contribute the DNA at the crime scene.

If the patterns match, it means that the suspect may have

contributed the evidence sample. While there is a chance

that someone else has the same DNA profile for a

particular probe set, the odds are exceedingly slim. The

question is, How small do they have to be when conviction

of the guilty or acquittal of the - innocent lies in the

balance? Many judges consider this a matter for a jury

to take into consideration along with other evidence in

the case. Experts point out that using DNA forensic

technology is far superior to eyewitness accounts, where

the odds for correct identification are about 50:50.

Steps involved in DNA finger printing

.

extracted from almost any human

tissue. Sources of DNA found at a

crime scene might include blood,

semen, tissue from a deceased victim,

cells in a hair follicle, and even saliva.

DNA extracted from items of evidence is compared to

DNA extracted from reference samples from known

individuals, normally from blood.

DNA extraction – DNA can be



restriction endonuclease–

Digestion of DNA with a

Extracted DNA is treated with

a restriction endonuclease,

which is an enzyme that will

cut double stranded DNA whenever a specific DNA

sequence occurs. The enzyme most commonly used for

forensic DNA analysis is HaeIII, which cuts DNA at

the sequence 5'-GGCC-3'.

.

electrophoresis –

DNA digestion, the resulting

DNA fragments are separated

by size via electrophoresis in

agarose gels. During electrophoresis, DNAs which are

negatively charged migrate toward the positive electrode.

As DNAs move, their migration rate is slowed by the

matrix of the agarose gel. Smaller DNAs move more

rapidly through the pores of the gel matrix than larger

DNAs. The result is a continuous separation of the DNA

fragments according to size, with the smallest DNA

fragments moving the greatest distance away from the

origin.

Agarose gelFollowing



Preparation of a “southern blot” – Following

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probe, the radioactivity on the Southern Blot can be

washed away with a high temperature solution, leaving

the DNA in place. The Southern Blot can be hybridized

with a second radioactive single locus probe, and by

repetition of steps 5-7, a series of different single locus

probes. The set of Autorads from a Southern Blot is

known as a “DNA Profile.”

Institutes where you can study forensic

science in India

If you are a student from India, you could join forensic

science in a number of ways. Many universities in India

offer M.Sc. Courses in Forensic Sciences. Main among

these are:

1. Punjabi University

course of M.Sc. in Forensic Science. There are ten seats

per batch. To be eligible you must have either of the

following: (i)B.Sc. (Medical/Non-Medical) (ii) BDS

(iii) MBBS. The university offers specialization in forensic

biology, forensic serology, forensic chemistry and forensic

toxicology.

, Patiala : It offers a two year

2. Department of Criminology and Forensic Science,

Dr. Hari Singh Gaur Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, Sagar

University, Madhya Pradesh.

The department offers two Masters Degree courses. These

are M.A. (Master of Arts) in Criminology, and M.Sc.

(Master of Science) in Forensic Science and Forensic

Toxicology. Each course has 12 seats. The selection is

on merit basis. Admissions start in June every year (or

sometimes in July). These courses are also taught at

Graduate level (Both B.A. and B.Sc. Level). The

department has a well-equipped laboratory for conducting

experiments

Another course offered by this University is a six-month

Diploma course in Criminology and Forensic Science.

But this diploma is meant only for the Police officials

of the Madhya Pradesh State. Please contact the University

to check if you can be admitted to this course as a special

case. Research Programmes in Criminology and Forensic

Science are also conducted.

3. University of Chennai

This university offers an MA in Criminology. Eligibility

is a valid Bachelor’s degree.

, Chennai

4. Banaras Hindu University

This University offers an MA in Criminology. Eligibility

is a valid Bachelor’s degree.

, Varanasi, (UP)

5. Forensic House,

Chennai

This institute offers a course in Criminology and Forensic

electrophoresis, the separated

DNAs are denatured while still

in the agarose gel by soaking

the gel in a basic solution.

Following neutralization of the

basic solution, the single strand

DNAs are transferred to the surface of a nylon membrane

by blotting. This denaturation/blotting procedure is known

as a “Southern Blot” after the inventor, Ed Southern.

Just as the blotting of wet ink on a dry paper transfers

a replica of the image to the paper, the blotting of DNA

to a nylon membrane preserves the spatial arrangement

of the DNA fragments that existed after electrophoresis.

35A Kamarajan Salai, Mylapore,



probe

a DNA or RNA sequence that is

able to hybridize (i.e. form a DNADNA

or DNA-RNA duplex) with

DNA from a specific restriction

fragment on the Southern Blot. Duplex formation depends

on complementary base pairing between the DNA on

the Southern blot and the probe sequence. Single locus

probes are usually tagged with a radioactive label for

easy detection, and are chosen to detect one polymorphic

genetic locus on a single human chromosome. The

Southern Blot from step 4 is incubated in a solution

containing a radioactive, single locus probe under

conditions of temperature and salt concentration that

favor hybridization. After hybridization, the unbound

probe is washed away, so that the only radioactivity

remaining bound to the nylon membrane is associated

with the DNA of the targeted locus.

Hybridization with radioactive– A Single Locus Probe is

.

autoradiography

of radioactive probe hybridization

on the Southern Blot are detected

by Autoradiography. In this

technique, the washed nylon

membrane is placed next to a sheet of X-ray film in a

light tight container. The X-ray film records the locations

of radioactive decay. After exposure and development

of the X-ray film, the resulting record of the Southern

Hybridization is termed an “Autoradiograph”, or

“Autorad” for short.

Detection of RFLPs via– The locations

.

additional probes

forensics DNA analysis, DNA polymorphisms on several

different chromosomes are characterized. After an

Autorad has been developed for the first single locus

Re-probe southern blot with– In a typical

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Science. Eligibility is a valid Bachelor’s degree in Physics,

Chemistry or Applied Science. MBBS, BDS, and

B.Pharm. students are also accepted.

6. Department of Criminology and Forensic Science,

Karnataka University, Dharwar 580003, Karnataka

India

Karnataka University offers M.A. (Masters in Arts) in

Criminology and M.Sc. in Forensic Science and Forensic

Toxicology. To be eligibile, you have to have a BA, B.Sc.

or B.Com. degree with a minimum of 50% aggregate.

The admission is through an entrance test.

7. Department of Forensic Science

Ambedkar University, Agra, U.P.

This University offers an M.Sc. in Forensic Science.

, Dr. B.R.

8. Tata Institute of Social Sciences

8313, Sion-Trombay Road Deonar, Mumbai

This institute offers Criminology as a specialization course

with Masters in Social Work programme.

, Post Box No.

9. Department of Anthropology

Delhi

It offers a certificate course in Forensic Science

, University of Delhi,

10. National Institute of Criminology and Forensic

Science

Sector III, Institutional Area, Outer Ring Road, Rohini,

Delhi-110085

This institute is a premier body conducting traning and

research in the field of Forensic Science. It offers research

programmes and diplomas in Forensic Science. Officials

who can attend these programs are police officers, forensic

scientists, judges, research scholars, and senior officials

from various forensic laboratories.

, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India,

11. Department of Anthropology

Pune, Maharashtra, India.

This University started a Masters course as well as a

P.G. Diploma course in Forensic Sciences in 2003.

In general, to be eligible for an M.Sc. Course in Forensic

Sciences in any of the above universities, you should

have a bachelor’s degree, preferably with a first division

in physics, chemistry, zoology, or botany. You can find

out about the details of admission to this course from

your local state university. Once you have done the M.Sc.

successfully you can even go for a Ph.D. in Forensic

Sciences. In your M.Sc. Course you can choose a field

of specialization such as forensic ballistics, forensic

entomology, forensic botany and so on.

, University of Pune,

For further details e-mail   TO sainto1380@gmail.com

class XII SCIENCE syllabus and marking scheme

SYLLABUS--PHYSICS (Class-XII)

Theory

Unit-I : Electrostatics (Periods-25)

Electric charges and their conservation, Coulomb's law, Force between two points charges, forces between

multiple charges, superposition principle and continuous charge distribution.

Electric field, electric field due to a point charge, electric field lines, electric dipole, electric field due

to a diapole, torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field.

Electric flux, statement of Gauses's theorem and its applications to find field due to infinitely longstraight wire, uniformly charged infinite planesheet and uniformly charged thin spherical shell (field inside

and outside).

Electric potential, potential difference, electric potential due to a point charge, a dipole and system of

charges, equi-potential surfaces, electrical potential energy of a system of two point charges and of electric

dipole in an electrostatics field.

Conductors and insulators, free charges and bound charges inside a conductor. Dielectric and electric

polarisation capacitors and capacitance combination of capacitors in series and in parallel capicitance of a

parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium between plates, energy stored in a capacitor, Van

de Graff generator.

Unit-II : Current Electricity (Periods-22)

Electric current flow of electric charges in a metallic conductor, drift velocity and mobility, and their

relation with electric current, Ohm's law, electrical resistance, V-I, Characteristic (linear and non-linear),

electrical energy and power, electrical resistivity and conductivity, carbon resistors, colour code for carbon

resistors, series & parallel combinations of resistors, temperature dependence of resistance, Internal resistance

of a cell, potential difference and emf of a cell, combination of cells in series and in parallel.

Krichoff's laws and simple applications, wheatstone bridge, meter bridge.

Potentiometer-principle and applications to measure potential difference and for comparing emf of two

cells, measurement of internal resistance of a cell.

Unit-III : Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism (Periods-25)

Concept of magnetic field, Oersted's experiment Biot-sevart law and its application to current carrying

circular loop.

Ampere's law and its applications to infinitely long straight wire, straight and toroidal solenids, Force

on a moving charge in uniform magnetic and the field, cyclotron.

Force on a current carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field. Force between two parallel current

- carrying conductor - definition of ampere, Torque experiencd by a current loop in a uniform magnetic field,

moving coil galvenometers, its current sensitivity and conversion to ammeter and voltmeter voltage current

loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment. Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron.

Magnetic field intensity due to a magnetic dipole (bar magnete) along its axis and perpendicular to its axis.

Torque on a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) in a uniform magnetic field, bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid,

magnetic field lines, Earth's magnetic field and magnetic elements. Para-dia & Ferro-magnetic substances,

with examples. Electromagnets and factors affectings their strength, permanent magnets.

Unit-IV : Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current (Periods-20)

Electromagnetic induction, Faraday's law, induced emf and current, Lenz's law, Eddy currents, self and

mutual inductance.

Need for displacement current.

Alternating currents, peak and rms value of Ac/voltage, reactance and impedance, LC, oscillations

(qualitative treatment only), LCR series circuit, resonance, power in AC Circuits, wattliess current.

AC generator and transformer.

Unit-V : Electromagnetic Waves (Periods-4)

Electromagnetic waves and their characteristics (qualitative ideas only). Transverse nature of

electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic spectrum / radio waves, micro waves, infrared , visible, ultraviolet, x-rays, gammarays)

including elementary facts about their uses.

Unit-VI : Optics (Periods-30)

Reflection of light, spherical mirrors, mirror formula, Refraction of light, total internal reflection and

its application, optical fibres, refraction at spherical surfaces, lenses, thin lens formula, lens maker's formula,

Magnification, power of a lens, combination of thin lenses in contact. Refraction and dispersion of light

through a prism, Scattering of light - blue colour of the sky and reddish appearance of the sun at sunrise and

sunset.

Optical instrument : Human eye, image formation and accomodation, correction of eye defects (Myopia,

hypermetropia, presbyopia and astigmatism) using lenses, Microscopes and astronomical telescope (reflecting

and refracting) and their magnifying powers.

Wave Optics : Wavefront and Hyugen's principle, reflection and refraction of plane Wave at a plane,

surface using wavefronts. Proof of laws of reflection and refraction using Huygen's principle. InterferenceYoung's double slit experiment and expression for fringe width, coherent sources and sustained interference

of light, Diffraction due to a single slit, width of centra maximum. Resolving powers of microscopes and

astronomical telescope, polarisation, plane polarised light, Brcwster's law, uses of plane polarised light and

polaroids.

Unit-VII : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation (Periods-8)

Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard's observations. Einstein's photoelectric equation, particle nature

of light.

Matter waves – Wave nature of particles, de-Broglie relation, Davission - Germer experiment.

Unit-VII : Atoms and Nuclei (Periods-18)

Alpha – Particle scattering experiments, Rutherford model of atom, Bohr model, energy levels, hydrogen

spectrum.

Composition and size of nucleus, atomic masses, isotopes, isobars, isotones, Radioactivity – alpha,

beta and gamma particle / rays and their properties, radioactive decay law. Mass energy relation, mass defect,

binding energy per nucleon and its variation with mass number, nuclear fission and fusion.

Unit-IX : Electronic Devices (Periods-18)

Semiconductors, semiconductor diode – I. V. characteristics in forward ad reverse bias, diode as a

rectifier, I-V characteristics of LED, photodiode, solar cell and Zener diode, Zener diode as a voltage regulator,

Junction transistor, transistor action, characteristics of a transistor, transistor as an amplifier (common emitter

configuration) and oscillator, Logic gates (OR, AND, NOT, NAND and NOR), Transistor as a Switch, Boolean

Algebra (Elementary ideas only).

Unit-X : Communication Systems (Periods-25)

Elements of communication system (block diagram only), bandwidth of signals (speech, TV and digital

data); bandwidth of transmission medium propagation of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere, sky and

space wave propagation, Need for modulation, production and detection of an amplitude-modulated wave.

Satellite communication system and its uses : Elementary ideas of electronic gadget used in our daily

life like - Mobile, tax, modem, computer and internet, remote sensing etc.

PROne Paper Three Hours Max. Marks : 70

Unit Class-XI                                                             Weightage

Unit-I Electrostatics                                                                 08

Unit-II Current Electricity                                                        07

Unit-III Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism               08

Unit-IV Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents  08

Unit-V Electromagnetic Waves                                              03

Unit-VI Optics                                                                          14

Unit-VII Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation              04

Unit-VIII Atoms & Nuclei                                                          06

Unit-IX Electronic Devices                                                      07

Unit-X Communication Systems                                            05

Total                                                                                        70

                                     

                     SYLLABUS--CHEMISTRY (Class-XI)CHEMISTRY

Theory          Total Periods : 180

UNIT-I : Some basic concepts of Chemistry : (Periods -14)

General Introduction : Importance and scope of chemistry, Historical approach to particulate nature of matter, laws of chemical combination, Dalton's atomic theory; concept of elements,atoms and molecules, Atomic and molecular masses. Mole concept and molar mass;percentage composition, empirical and molecular formula; chemical reactions, stoichiometry and calculations based on stoichiometry.

UNIT-II : Structure of Atom : (Periods -16)

Discovery of electron, proton and neutron and their characteristics; atomic nu& Isobars, Thomson's model and its limitation, Rutherford's model and its limitations,Bohr's model and its limitations, concept of shells and subshells, dual nature of matter and light, De Broglie's relationship, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, concept of orbitals,

Quantum numbers, shapes of S.P. and d orbitals, rules for filling electrons in orbitals – Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle and Hund's rule, electronic configuration ofatoms, stability of half filled and completely filled orbitals.

jl UNIT-III : Radioactivity : (Periods -10)

Artificial and natural radioactivity, á, â and γ rays, cause of radioactivity, disintegrationlaw, group displacement law, half life period, average life, mass defect, binding energy,balancing of nuclear reactions, fission and fusion, isotopes, isobars and isotones.

UNIT-IV : Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties :

(Periods -12)

Significance of classification, brief history of the development of periodic table, modernperiodic law and the present form of periodic table, periodic trends in properties of elements

– atomic radii, ionic radii, inert gas radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, valency, classification of elements in terms of s, p, d and f-block and theircharacteristics, Normal and transition elements, lanthanides, metal, non metal andmetalloids, oxidation states, stability, colour, magnetic properties, complexing propertiesand catalytic properties of transition elements.

UNIT-V : Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure : (Periods -16)

Valence electrons, ionic bond, covalent bond, bond parameteers, Lewis structure, polarcharacter of covalent bond, Covalent characters of Ionic bond, valence bond theory,resonance, geometry of covalent molecules, VSEPR theory, concept of hybridizationinvolving s, p and d orbitals and shapes of some simple molecules, molecular orbital theoryof homonuclear diatomic molecules (qualitative idea only). Hydrogen bonding, shapes ofions and molecules (CH4, NH3, H2O, SO4–2, NO3–,).

UNIT-VI : States of Matter : gases and liquids : (Periods -14)

Three states of matter, Intermolecular interactions, type of bonding, melting and boilingpoints. Role of gas laws in elucidating the concept of the molecule, Boyle's law, Charle'slaw, Gay Lussac's law, Avogadro's law, Ideal behaviour, empirical derivation of gas equation.Avogadro's number. Ideal gas equation. Derivation from ideal behaviour, liquification ofgases, critical temperature.Liquid State – Vapour pressure, viscosity and surface tension (qualitative idea only, no mathematical derivations).

UNIT-VII : Thermodynamics : (Periods -16)

Concepts of system, types of systems, surroundings, work, heat, energy, extensive andintensive properties, state functions. First law of thermodynamics – internal energy andenthalpy, heat capacity and specific heat, measurement of DU and DH, Hess's law of constantheat summation, enthalpy of bond dissociation, combustion, formation, atomization,sublimation, phase transition, ionization and dilution.Introduction of entropy as a state function, free energy change for spontaneous and nonsponteneousprocess, equilibrium.

UNIT-VIII : Equilibrium : (Periods -20)

Equilibrium in physical and chemical processes dynamic nature of equilibrium, law ofmass action, equilibrium constant, factors affecting equilibrium – Le Chatelier's principle;ionic equilibrium – ionization of acids and bases, strong and weak electrolytes, degree ofionization, concept of pH and its application – also with reference to human health, diseases,food, drinks, medicine, soil fertility and in fertilizer. Hydrolysis of salts (elementary idea),buffer solutions, solubility product, common ion effect (with illustrative examples).

UNIT-IX : Redox Reactions : (Periods -8)

Concept of oxidation and reduction, redox reactions, oxidation number, balancing redox reactions, applications of redox reactions.

UNIT-X : Hydrogen : (Periods -4)

Position of hydrogen in periodic table, occurrence, isotopes, preparation, properties anduses of hydrogen; hydrides – ionic, covalent and interstitial; physical and chemicalproperties of water, heavy water; hydrogen peroxide –preparation, reactions and structure;hydrogen as a fuel.

UNIT-XI : s-Block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline earth metals): (Periods -14)

Group 1 and Group 2 elements :General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, anomalous properties of the first element of each group, diagonal relationship, trends in the variation of properties (such as

ionization enthalpy, atomic and ionic radii), trends in chemical reactivity with oxygen, water,hydrogen and halogens; uses. Preparation and properties of some important compounds : Sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide and sodium hydrogen carbonate, biological importance of sodium and potassium.. CaO, CaCO3 and industrial use, Special characteristics and use of Boarx, Boric acid, Boron hydride, silicon, silicates and zeolite.

UNIT-XII : Some p-Block Elements (Periods -16)

General Introduction to p_Block Elements

Group 13 elements : General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence. Variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous properties of first elem ent of the group; Boron-physical and chemical properties, some important compounds : borax, boric acids, boron hydrides. Aluminium : uses, reactions with acids and alkalies. Group 14 elements : General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of

properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous behaviour of first element, Carbon - catenation, allotropic forms, physical and chemical properties; uses of some important

compounds : oxides. Preparation of some important compounds, their characteristics and uses : (Periods -4) Sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide and sodium hydrogen carbonate, biological importance of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron.  CaO, CaCO3 – industrial use, special characteristics and use of Borax, Boric acid, Boron hydride, silicon, silicates and zeolite.

UNIT-XIII : Organic Chemistry – Some Basic Principles and Techniques : (Periods -13)

General introduction, methods of purification, qualitative and quantitative analysis, classification and IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds. Electronic displacements in a covalent bond : inductive effect, electromeric effect, resonance and hyper conjugation. Homolytic and heterolytic fission of a covalent bond : free radicals, carbocations, carboanions; electrophiles and nucleophiles, types of organic reactions.

UNIT-XIV : Hydrocarbons : (Periods -16)

Classification of hydrocarbons :

Alkanes – Nomenclature, isomerism, conformations (ethane only), methods of preparation,physical properties, chemical reactions, including free radical mechanism of halogenation,combustion and pyrolysis.

Alkenes – Nomenclature, structure of double bond (ethene), geometrical isomerism, methodsof preparation, physical properties, chemical reactions : addition of hydrogen, halogen, water,hydrogen halides (Markovnikov'saddition and peroxide effect), ozonolysis, oxidation.

Alkynes – Nomenclature, structure of triple bond (ethyne), methods of preparation, physical properties, chemical reactions; acidic character of alkynes, some nucleophilic addition  reactions.

Aromatic hydrocarbons – Introduction, IUPAC nomenclature, Benzene : resonance, aromaticity : methods of preparation, chemical properties, orientation. Mechanism of electrophilic substitution – nitration, sulphonation, halogenation, Friedal Craft's alkylation and acylation; Aldol and cannizaro condensation, directive influence or

functional group in mono-substituted benzene; carcinogenicity and toxicity.

UNIT-XV : Environmental Chemistry : (Periods -6)

Concept on environment and ecology, general concept of pollution – air, water and soilpollution, smogs (mixture of smoke and fogs), major atmospheric pollutants : acid rain, ozone and its reactions, effects of depletion of ozone layer, greenhouse effect and global warming – pollution due to industrial wastes, over population, modernization, ecological imbalance, green chemistry as an alternative tool for reducing pollution, strategy for control

of environmental pollution.

SYLLABUS--CHEMISTRY (Class-XII)

CHEMISTRY

   Theory                     Total Periods :   180

UNIT-I : Solid State : (Periods -12)

Classification of solids based on different binding forces : Molecular, ionic, covalent and metallic solids, amorphous an crystalline solids (elementary idea) unit cell in two dimensional and three dimensional lattices, calculation of density of unit cell, packing in solids, voids, number of atoms per unit cell in a cubic unit cell, point defects, electrical

and magnetic properties.

UNIT-II : Solutions : (Periods -12)

Types of solutions, expression of concentration of solutions of solids in liquids, colligative properties – relative lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of Boiling point, depression of freezing point, osmotic pressure, determination of molecular masses using colligative properties, abnormal molecular mass.

UNIT-III : Electrochemistry : (Periods -14)

Redox reactions, conductance in electrolytic solutions, specific and molar conductivity, variations of conductivity with concentration, Kohlrausch's law, electrolysis and laws of electrolysis (elementary idea), dry cell, electrolytic cells and Galvanic cells, lead accumulator, EMF of a cell, standard electrode potential, Nernst equation and its application

to chemical cells, and fuel cells corrosion.

UNIT-IV : Chemical Kinetics : (Periods -12)

Rate of a reaction (average and instantaneous), factors affecting rates of reaction, concentration, temperature, catalyst, order and molecularity of a reaction, rate laws and specific rate constant, integrated rate equations and half life (only for zero and first order reactions); concepts of collision theory (elementary idea, no mathematical treatment).

UNIT-V Surface Chemistry :(Periods -8

Adsorption – Physiosorption and chemisorption; factor affecting adsorption of gases on solids; catalysis, homogeneous and heterogeneous, activity and selectivity, enzyme catalysis, colloidal state : distinction between true solutions, colloids and suspensions, lyophilic, lyophobic, multimolecular and macromolecular colloids; properties of colloids; Tyndall effect, Brownian movement, electrophoresis, coagulation, emulsion – types of emulsions.

UNIT-VI : General principles and process of Isolation of elements : (Periods -8)

Principles and methods of extraction – concentration, oxidation, reduction, electrolytic and refining.

Occurence and principles of extraction of aluminium, copper, zinc and iron.

UNIT-VII : Group I & II elements : (Periods -8)

Abnormal properties of first element of group-13 and group-14 elements, Diagonal relationship and different properties of groups I & group-II elements like chemical reactivities, atomic and Ionic radii, enthalpi of ionization etc.

UNIT-VIII : P-block elements : (Periods -14)

Group 15 elements : General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, oxidation states, trends in physical and chemical properties, nitrogen-preparation, properties and uses, compounds of nitrogen, preparation and properties of ammonia and nitric acid, oxides of nitrogen (structure only), Phosphorous – allotropic forms, compounds of phosphorous, preparation and properties of phosphine, halides of phosphorous (PCl3 and PCl5) and

oxoacids (elementary idea only).

Group 16 elements : General introduction, electronic configuration, oxidation states,occurrence, trends in physical and chemical properties; dioxygen, preparation, propertiesand uses simple oxides, ozone sulphur – allotropic forms; compounds of sulphur; preparation, properties and uses of sulphur dioxide, sulphuric acid; industrial process of

manufacture; properties and uses, oxoacids of sulphur (structure only). Group 17 elements : General introduction, electronic configuration, oxidation states, occurrence, trends in physical and chemical properties; compounds of halogens; preparation, properties and uses of chlorine and hydrochloric acid, interhalogen compounds, oxoacids

of halogens (structure only).

Group 18 elements : General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrance, trends in physical and chemical properties, uses.

UNIT-IX : d– and f– block elements : (Periods -14)

General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence and characteristics of transitionmetals, general trends in properties of the first row transition metals – metallic character,ionization enthalpy, oxidation states, ionic radii, colour, catalytic property, magneticproperties, interstitial compounds, alloy formation. Preparation and properties ofK2Cr2O7 and KMnO4 .Lanthanides : Electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical reactivity and lanthanide contraction. Actinides : Electronic configuration, oxidation states.

UNIT-X : Co-ordination Compounds : (Periods -12)

Coordination compounds – Introduction, ligands, coordination number, colour, magnetic properties and shapes, IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds, bonding, isomerism, importance of coordination (in qualitative analysis, extraction of metals and biological systems).

UNIT-XI : Haloalkanes and Haloarenes : (Periods -12)

Haloalkanes : Nomenclature, nature of C-X bonds, methods of preparation, prophysical and chemical properties, mechanism of substitution reactions. Haloarenes : Nature of C-X bond, methods of preparation, substitution reactions (directive influence of halogen for mono substitute compounds only) uses and environmental effects

of dichloromethane, trichloro methane, tetra chloromethane, iodoform, freons, DDT.

UNIT-XII : Alcohals, Phenols and Ethers : (Periods -12)

Alcohol : Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties (of primary alcohol only); identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols; mechanism of dehydration, uses, some important compounds – methanol and ethanol. Phenols : Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, acidic nature of phenol, electrophilic substitution reactions, uses of phenols.

Ethers : Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses.

UNIT-XIII : Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids : (Periods -12)

Aldehydes and Ketones : Nomenclature, nature of carbonyl group, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, and mechanism of nucleophilic addition, reactivity of alpha hydrogen in aldehyde, uses. Carboxylic Acid : Nomenclature, acidic nature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses.

UNIT-XIV : Organic compounds containing Nitrogen : (Periods - ....)

Amines cynaides and Isocynaides: Nomenclature, classification, structure, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses, identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines. Diazonium Salts : Preparation, chemical reactions and importance in synthetic organic chemistry.

UNIT-XV : Biomolecules : (Periods -12)

Carbohydrates : Classification (aldoses and ketoses), mono sacharides (glucose and fructose), oligosacharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose,

glycogens), importance. Proteins : Elementary idea of amino acids, peptide bonds, polypeptides, proteins, primary

structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure and quaternary structure (qualitative idea only), denaturation of proteins, enzymes. Vitmains : Classification and functions : Nucleic acid : DNA and RNA

jGroup 17 elements : General introduction, electronic configuration, oxidation states, occurrence, trends in physical and chemical properties; compounds of halogens; preparation, properties and uses of chlorine and hydrochloric acid, interhalogen compounds, oxoacids of halogens (structure only). Group 18 elements : General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrance, trends in physical and chemical properties, uses.

UNIT-IX : d– and f– block elements : (Periods -14)

General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence and characteristics of transition metals, general trends in properties of the first row transition metals – metallic character, ionization enthalpy, oxidation states, ionic radii, colour, catalytic property, magnetic properties, interstitial compounds, alloy formation. Preparation and properties ofK2Cr2O7and KMnO4 Lanthanides : Electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical reactivity and lanthanide

contraction. Actinides : Electronic configuration, oxidation states.

UNIT-X : Co-ordination Compounds : (Periods -12)

Coordination compounds – Introduction, ligands, coordination number, colour, magnetic properties and shapes, IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds, bonding, isomerism, importance of coordination (in qualitative analysis, extraction of metals and biological systems).

UNIT-XI : Haloalkanes and Haloarenes : (Periods -12)

Haloalkanes : Nomenclature, nature of C-X bonds, methods of preparation, prophysical and chemical properties, mechanism of substitution reactions. Haloarenes : Nature of C-X bond, methods of preparation, substitution reactions (directive influence of halogen for mono substitute compounds only) uses and environmental effects

of dichloromethane, trichloro methane, tetra chloromethane, iodoform, freons, DDT.

UNIT-XII : Alcohals, Phenols and Ethers : (Periods -12)

Alcohol : Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties (of primary alcohol only); identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols; mechanism of dehydration, uses, some important compounds – methanol and ethanol. Phenols : Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, acidic nature of phenol, electrophilic substitution reactions, uses of phenols. Ethers : Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses.

UNIT-XIII : Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids : (Periods -12)

Aldehydes and Ketones : Nomenclature, nature of carbonyl group, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, and mechanism of nucleophilic addition, reactivity of alpha hydrogen in aldehyde, uses. Carboxylic Acid : Nomenclature, acidic nature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses.

UNIT-XIV : Organic compounds containing Nitrogen : (Periods - ....)

Amines cynaides and Isocynaides: Nomenclature, classification, structure, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses, identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines. Diazonium Salts : Preparation, chemical reactions and importance in synthetic organic chemistry.

UNIT-XV : Biomolecules : (Periods -12)

Carbohydrates : Classification (aldoses and ketoses), mono sacharides (glucose and fructose), oligosacharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogens), importance.

Proteins : Elementary idea of amino acids, peptide bonds, polypeptides, proteins, primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure and quaternary structure (qualitative idea only), denaturation of proteins, enzymes.

Vitmains : Classification and functions : Nucleic acid : DNA and RNA

jlk;u UNIT-XVI : Polymers : (Periods -8)

Classification : natural and synthetic, methods of polymerization (addition and  condensation), copolymerization. Some important polymers; natural and synthetic like polythene, nylon, polyesters, bakelite, rubber.

UNIT-XVII : Chemistry in everyday life : (Periods -8)

1. Chemical in medicines – Analgesics, tranquilizers, antiseptic, disinfectants,

antimicrobials, antifertility drugs, antibiotics, antacids, antihistamines.

2. Chemicals in food – Preservatives, artificial sweetening agents.

3. Cleansing agents – Soaps and detergents, cleansing action.

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                               SYLLABUS - BIOLOGY CLASS-XI

UNIT-I : DIVERSITY IN LIVING WORLD

l Introduction and significance of biodiversity. Systematics (General introduction, Identification classification) and binomial and Trinomial system of nomenclature, concept of Taxons. l Classification of the living organisms : Five kingdom classification (Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and animalia) and Two kingdom system. l System of Plant Classification (Artificial, Natural and phylogenetic systems) and animal classification (Non-chordate upto phylum level and chordate upto class level) l Elementary idea of Micro-organism : Viroids, Prions, Viruses (status of viruses),

bacteriophages, bacteria, cyanobacteria and their economic importance. l Characteristic feature and elementary idea of different plant groups (Thallophyta, Bryophyta, pteridophyta, Gymnosperm and Angiosperm).

l Botanical Garden, Zoological parks, Sanctuary, Natural musuems, herbaria.

UNIT-II : STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION AND COMPLEXITY IN LIVING ORGANISM

l Morphology of Plants : * Morphology of roots, stems and leaf with their modification. * Morphology of Inflorescence, flowers, fruits and seeds. * Descriptions of different families on the basis of floral characters : Malvaceae, Solanaceae, liliaceae, cruciferae, leguminasae, compositeae, graminae (Poaceae).

l Anatomy of Plants :

* Elementary idea about tissue system. * Anatomical structure of root, stem and leaf, monocot and dicot plant.

* Morphological and anatomical structure of hydrophytic and xerophytic plant with

 special reference to root, stem and leaf (only adaptive characters).

l Brief anatomy and function in animals : * Tissue and its type. * Digestive, respiratory, circulatory, nervous and reproductive systems of  Earthworm, cockroach, frog and rabbit.

UNIT-III : CELL : STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

l Introduction and elementary idea of Tools and techniques used in study of cell. l Ultra structure of typical Eukaryotic cell and differences with Prokaryotic cell. Differences between animal cell and plant cell.

l Protoplasm : Structure (chemical composition) l Cell membrane : Concept of unit membrane model, Fluid mosaic model, passive and active transport.

l Cell wall l Structure and function of cell organelles : Mitochondria, plastids, endoplasmic, golgibodies / dictyosomes, ribosomes, lysosomes, vacuoles, cytoskeleton, microtubules, centrioles, cilia and flagella, nucleus.

l Cell cycle : Cell division; Amitosis, Mitosis and Meiosis and their significance (animal cell and plant cell).

l Biomolecules : Basic chemical constituents of living bodies, structure and functions of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. l Enzymes : Its types, properties and major function (elementary idea) ATP and other

energy rich compounds, Elementary ideas of vitamins and major functions.

 UNIT-IV : PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

l Plant water relationship, water potential of cell, absorption of water and minerals,  ascent of sap, transpiration and mechanism of stomatal opening and closure, Xerophytic adaptation for transpiration. Respiration l Photosynthesis l Plant growth and development  l Growth regulator, Photoperiodism and vernelization.

UNIT-V : HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

l Elementary ideas of physiology of digestion and absorption, respiration, circulation and excretion.

l Movement and locomotion.  Control and co-ordination : Nervous system, sensory system and endocrine systems.

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COURSE One Paper Three Hours Max. Marks : 70

Class-XI                                                          Weightage

1. Diversity in living world                                                            05

2. Structural organization and complexity in living organism           10

3. Cell : Structure and function                                                    15

4. Plant Physiology                                                                    16

5. Human Physiology                                                                 16

6. Organism and Environment                                                     10

Total                                                                                         70

                     SYLLABUS - BIOLOGY CLASS-XII

UNIT-I : REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

l Reproduction in Plants – Types of reproduction, reproductive part of flower, gametogenesis, pollination and fertilization; Development of seeds and fruits. l Reproduction and development in Human – Reproductive system in male and female; Role of sex-hormones in the development of sexual characters, menstrual cycle,

production of gametes (gametogenesis), fertilization, implantation, embryo development, pregnancy and parturation, Test-tube baby (IVF).

l Reproduction Health – Birth control, contraception and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).

UNIT-II : GENETICS AND ORGANIC EVOLUTION

l Introduction l Mendelism – Mendel's experiments of monohybrid and dihybrid cross, Mendel's law of inheritance. l Gene interaction – Incomplete dominance, co-dominance, multiple alleles (blood groupings), Epistasis. l Chromosome theory of inheritance, linkage and crossing over, cytoplasmic inheritance.

Sex-determination in human beings : XX, Xy, Sex-linked inheritance and cogenital diseases ex. Haemophilia, colour blindness, Sickle celled anaemia. l Elementary idea of Gene, chromatin fibre and chromosome. l DNA – replication, Genetic code, transcription and translation.  Gene expression and regulation l Mechanism of variation – at chromosome level (chromosomal abberation and it gene level (mutation).  Theories and evidences of organic evolution, Lamarckism, Darwinism and Neo-Darwinism

UNIT-III : BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

l Elementary idea of components of Biotechnology. l Tools and techniques.

l Recombinant DNA technology, Genetically modified (GM) organism– Application in health, Agriculture and Industries. Insulin and BT-Cotton.

l DNA finger printing

UNIT-IV : APPLIED BIOLOGY AND HUMAN WELFARE

l Introduction l Elementary idea of animal husbandry, poulty, fisheries, silviculture (litchi, mango), Horticulture, Apiculture, Sericulture, Cultivation of Makhana and Medicinal plants. l Improvement in agriculture, food production and food processing, food processing and micro organisms. l Basic concepts of plant breeding and tissue culture.

l Microbes in sewage treatment and energy generation. l Basic concept of Immunology, vaccines.

l Parasites and pathogens. l Cancer and AIDS l Adolescence and drug / alcohol abuse.

UNIT-V :  ORGANISM AND ENVIRONMENT

l Introduction of ecology. l Concept of species, population, population dynamics, community, ecosystem, Biome

and biosphere. l Ecosystem (Abiotic component and biotic component). l Interaction of Abiotic factors and Biotic factors. Effects of population on physical environment i.e. Climatic, edaphic and other abiotic factors. l Types of major ecosystems. Food chain, food web, Energy flow in ecosystem, Biogeochemical cycle (Gaseous and sedimentary).MAN AND ENVIRONMENT l Effect of increasing population on Ecosystem. l Conservation of biological resources – Wildlife and forest conservation. Importance of forests, hazards of deforestation, afforestation, Indian forests; causes for extinction of some wild life. Concept of endangered species, Measures and steps for conservation of endangered species.

Environmental Issues – l Environmental pollution; Air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, noise pollution,

radiation pollution, their effects and methods of control. l Environmental laws.tho f

One Paper Three Hours Max. Marks : 70

Class-XII                                                          Weightage

1. Reproduction and development                                    06

2. Genetics and organic evolution                                    18

3. Biotechnology & its application                                    18

4. Applied Biology and human welfare                              18

5. Man and Environment                                     10

Total                                                                             70oKku

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